The Great Pyramid Essay - 1399 Words

Outline Thesis Statement: The Great Pyramid is a mystery to the modern age, even though its purpose, uses, history, and condition have challenged explorers for centuries it will always be considered one of the greatest wonders of the world. 1. Why was the Great Pyramid built? A. Who built the Great Pyramid? B. Why was it built? C. Comparative theories. 2. What was the Great Pyramid used for? A. Religious uses. B. Astronomical uses. C. Environmental uses. 3. How was the Great Pyramid built? A. Workers. B. Dimensions. C. Surrounding community. Why the Great Pyramid of Giza was built is a question that has been challenging archeologists, philosophers, and historians†¦show more content†¦Some theorists also believe that it may have been a combination of all these things. (v) According to Egyptian and Sumerian mythology, there was a battle between two families of gods for supremacy and control over the ancient lands and the pyramids of Giza were strategic strongholds for the gods. (vi) The different shafts and chambers of the great pyramids are said to point to various constellations that represent several Egyptian gods. (vii) It is also thought by some that the pyramid may have been a place where Egyptians made a pilgrimage to honor the gods or their pharaoh who, according to legend was a descendent of the gods. (viii) Scientists have discovered that in the ceiling of the grand gallery the thirty-six ceiling stones were individually removable. Because of this, it is believed that during the construction of the pyram id it could have been used as a stellar observatory. They have also noticed unusual facts, such as the descending passage of the pyramid pointed to the pole star Alpha Draconis, which was the North Star of that time period. The southern shaft in the king’s chamber pointed to the star Al Nitak which was associated with the god Osiris. The southern shaft of the queen’s chamber pointed to the star Sirius which was associated with the god Isis. It has also been discovered that the Giza pyramids are a mirror reflection of the Orion constellation.Show MoreRelatedThe Great Pyramid Of Giza930 Words   |  4 Pagesfeats of architecture ever assembled, The Great Pyramid. Located approximately 5 miles west of the Nile River near the city of Cairo, Egypt, The Great Pyramid is part of a larger complex called the Giza Necropolis, which also houses the Great Sphinx, and two smaller pyramids. It is said to have been built by the enslaved citizens of Khufu, second ruler of the 4th dyn asty, and son of Snefru. Although archaeologists have since disproved that theory. The pyramids are said to have been built to house theRead MoreThe Great Pyramid Of Giza1382 Words   |  6 Pagespaper will examine the Great Pyramid of Giza during the Fourth Dynasty, the period in which it was built. My purpose for this topic is to not only educate myself further in the humanities of Ancient Egypt but to also get a better understanding of how the art relates to the people and their lives, I will do so by examining how and when The Great Pyramid of Giza and the surrounding pyramids were built, then how the culture of the people at the time influenced the making of the pyramid, and finally I willRead MoreThe Great Pyramid Of Giza Essay1704 Words   |  7 PagesThe Great Pyramid of Giza is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It is located at El Giza, Egypt. This pyramid was built for the pharaoh Khufu in around 2560 B.C. and was intended to last an eternity. Also, this py ramid was the tallest structure in the world for nearly 3800 years with a height of more than 481 feet. This pyramid is a great tribute to engineering and decades-long labor by tens of thousands of workers. It was estimated that the pyramids were built by 100,000 workersRead MoreThe Great Pyramid Of Giza Essay1147 Words   |  5 PagesThe â€Å"Great Pyramid of Giza† is situated in the Giza Necropolis which borders the largest city in Egypt – Giza. It is also identified by two other names; the Pyramid of â€Å"Cheops† or â€Å"Khufu†. The Great Pyramid stands as the largest and oldest among the Giza Necropolis pyramids. Furthermore, it is listed among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, holding the record of being the oldest in that list. The magnificence of the pyramid’s structure is an attraction that has grabbed the attention of severalRead MoreThe Great Pyramid Of Giza859 Words   |  4 Pages The Great Pyramid of Giza, is one of the oldest and sole surviving wonders of the Ancient World, has attracted the interest of many people such as tourists, philosophers, and travelers for hundreds of years. The pyramids interest has centered on the question of whether the ancient Egyptian people created and or possessed certain mathematical concepts and rules in the pyramids for the proportions and measurements. The Great Pyramid’s elevation encodes three of the most important constants in createdRead MoreEssay on The Great Pyramids1941 Words   |  8 PagesThe Great Pyramids Throughout the thousands of years that the Great Pyramid has been standing, there have been many myths and legends that sprung up. Among them was a landing site for alien spacecraft, a spacecraft itself, or the means to predict the future. This report is going to explain the actual reason the Great Pyramid of Giza exists, how and why it has existed for so long, and the story of its construction. The builder of the Great Pyramid does not get enough credit for his unbelievableRead MoreThe Great Pyramid Of Giza1138 Words   |  5 Pagesbuilt. The Pyramids! We find these mysterious, immense, and fascinating structures throughout the world. We gaze at them in wonder and ask ourselves: who built them? How were they built? what were they used for? and, when were they built? The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact. The pyramids purpose hasRead MoreThe Great Pyramid of Giza Essay679 Words   |  3 PagesThe Great Pyramid of Giza Who built the Great Pyramid? The Great Pyramid was built by the Egyptian pharaoh Khufu. Khufuwas born in 2589 BC - 2566 BC. His real name was Khnum-khuf meaning the god Khnum is his protection. Khufuwas the son of another great pyramid builder, King Sneferu. Khufus mothers name was Hetepheres. Khufuwas the second king in the 4th dynasty. The Greeks referred Khufu as Cheops When and Where was the Great Pyramid built? The GreatRead MoreThe Great Pyramid Essay examples1438 Words   |  6 PagesStatement: The Great Pyramid is a mystery to the modern age, even though its purpose; uses, history, and condition have challenged explorers for centuries it will always be considered one of the greatest wonders of the world. 1. Why was the Great Pyramid built? A. Who built the Great Pyramid? B. Why was it built? C. Comparative theories. 2. What was the Great Pyramid used for? A. Religious uses. B. Astronomical uses. C. Environmental uses. 3. How was the Great Pyramid built? A. WorkersRead MoreEssay on The Great Pyramid of Giza1176 Words   |  5 PagesThe Great Pyramid of Giza is also recognized as the Pyramid of Khufu, Khufus Pyramid and Pyramid of Cheops. It is the most significant and earliest structure in the world. This pyramid is the oldest of the three pyramids standing on the Giza Necropolis. It is also the largest of them all (Larry, 2000). This great pyramid is located on the northern edge of the Giza Plateau, which is 25 km outskirts, southwest of Cairo, Egypt. It is the only remaining standing monument of the Seven Wonders of the

Political Theory Pluralism, Corporatism and Public Choice

Topic 2: Political Theory: Pluralism, Corporatism and Public Choice Pluralism is a political theory that related to the acknowledgement for diversification that exist in society. Everyone has different views and appreciation for different value in life. Pluralism is a sign of theoretical standpoint on state ad power as well as resources. It depends on how it will be distributed in democratic state like United States of America (USA). Two famous name in mentioned by Manley (1983) in his article are Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom. Pluralism in political system is open to multiple interests of different group in society. All (professional associations, environmentalist, business and financial lobbies etc) are governing the United†¦show more content†¦The arrival of Italian fascism provided an opportunity to implement the theories of the corporate state. In 1919 Mussolini and his associates in Milan needed the support of the syndicalist wing of the Nationalist Party in order to gain power. Their aim in adopting corporatism—which t hey viewed as a useful form of social organization that could provide the vehicle for a broad-based and socially harmonious class participation in economic production—was to strengthen Mussolini’s claim to nationalism at the expense of the left wing of the centrist parties and the right wing of the syndicalists groups (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2012). However, new corporatism which is democratic corporatism is appear differently to Mussolini’s corporatism era. It appeals twofold. First, corporatism treats interest groups as legitimate participants in public policy making, which legitimates their having an official policy-making role. Government regards, industry and labour as valuable partners, rather than hostile pressure groups. Second, culturally there is an elective affinity between corporatism and deliberative 2 democracy. Corporatism encourages more deliberative activities such as discovery and transformation of group preference through probing of volitions and joint problem-solving. Hunold (2001) reported that democratic corporatism is use publicity, improve equality and inclusiveness. Publicity demands administrative agencies release proposed rules for public discussion andShow MoreRelatedSocial Policy is a Pluralistic Process.973 Words   |  4 Pagesassignment deals with the significance involvement of the pluralistic process in making of social policy. The essay is divided into four main sections. It will first define the key terms as: social policy, pluralism, welfare; and describe the role of the social policy, pluralism, but also to make connection between this terms and their ideology. It will then go on to consider how social policy gets made; it can assess the extent to which different ideas actually become social policyRead MoreInterest Groups and Policy Making1929 Words   |  8 Pagesmodels of interest group activities; corporatism and pluralism. The corporatist model suggests that interest groups are closely associated with the political process and play an important role in the formulation and implementation of major political decisions, here we can see that large interest groups can monopolise the representation of their own interests. The pluralist model in contrast maintains that individual interest groups can apply pressure on political members in a competitive manner andRead MoreMixed Economy7299 Words   |  30 Pagesby other regulations in the hopes that more control will produce better results. Sometimes the results are so destructive they must either be removed, or the people must be violently oppressed to make them accept it. SocialismSocialism is a political system that denies the validity of property rights. Instead, it claims that all property is communally owned. Instead of being a variant of property rights, this is an invalidation of those rights. It destroys the concept of rights by invalidatingRead MoreFordism Detailed and Referenced6927 Words   |  28 Pagescar, running with low stock levels as proto Japanese. However, the analysis of Japanisation and Fordism are here linked to labour process issues. Fordism however, refers to much more than the methods of Henry Ford, as it describes practices in the political and economic realms as well as in the realm of production. However ‘Fordism’ from its first usage by Gramsci (1978) upto its re-invention by Aglietta (1979) has had a wider purchase and latterly refers to the dominance of wider social and economicRead Moreâ€Å"Implicit† and â€Å"Explicit† Csr: a Conceptual Framework for a Comparative Understanding of Corporate Social Responsibility13330 Words   |  54 PagesMATTEN York University, Toronto JEREMY MOON University of Nottingham We address the question of how and why corporate social responsibility (CSR) differs among countries and how and why it changes. Applying two schools of thought in institutional theory, we conceptualize, first, the differences between CSR in the United States and Europe and, second, the recent rise of CSR in Europe. We also delineate the potential of our framework for application to other parts of the global economy. In this paperRead MoreThe Rise of China and Future of the West17670 Words   |  71 PagesWe must answer to three questions: 1-Is the Chinese growth expected to going on? Clearly, we answer Yes. Thanks to its population, China represents a huge market and the economy can still enjoy a very high growth rate in the next future. Despite political and social uncertainties, we are confident because of the quality of the Chinese youth. 400 Million are aged between 20 and 39 (Only 110 million in Western Europe ) and constitute the main labor force. These people are well educated, enthusiastic

Collins Automated Car Parking System †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Collins Automated Car Parking System. Answer: Introduction: The Collins car parking system is one of the most technologically advanced car parking system in Australia. It has helps in saving the time and the cost of parking is also very low. On the other hand, it has also reduced the number of the manual workers, as the entire system is automatized (Bonde et al., 2014).The parking system is of three types, that three types of ticket generation methods are present for the customers, tickets are printed on the basis of the time, 1stly the ordinary customers who park cars for some interval of time, the weekly basis parking, the monthly customer and the yearly customers (Mahmud et al.,2013). The fixed interval customers have own fixed parking plots, other that the ordinary customers. There are three types of the customers, one who parks the car on regular basis that is the ordinary customers. The others are the fixed customers who parks the car on a regular basis. Fixed customers are divide in weekly, monthly and yearly subscriptions.The tickets are generated depending on the types of the customers. The fixed customers have tickets printed with in their name or company name, contact details like the name, mobile number, residence address and emergency details (Sumathi, Varma Sasank, 2013). They pay fixed amount of money beforehand to park the car. The fixed customer has to park the car in the place designated for (Alfatihi, Chihab Alj, 2013). The ordinary customers pay every time they park their car, only the time and the amount are printed on the tickets. The parking fees gets calculated in the following manner: For the Fixed customers: 1 week 50 dollars 2 weeks 95 AUD 1 month 150 AUD 3 months 350 AUD 6 months 575 AUD 12 months 800 AUD For the ordinary customers: During weekdays midnight to 10 AM 2.5 AUD per hour During weekdays 10 AM to midnight 5 AUD per hour During weekends midnight to 10 AM 5 AUD per hour During weekends 10 AM to midnight 10 AUD per hour The Collins car parking systems accept both the card and the cash payments (Rao, 2017). The cards that are accepted are the Master / VISA / DEBIT cards, and in case of the cash payment only the correct amount needs to be dispensed in the denominations of 50c, 1$, 2$, 5$, 10$, 20$, 50$.In order to access the car parking system, the ordinary customers when comes in front of the entry barrier, the sensor detects the car and issues a ticket, the print comes out of the ticket dispensing control pillar and take ticket message is displayed in the overhead board (Soni, Kaur Kumar,2013). As soon as the customer takes the ticket, the barrier is lifted, and the customer can enter the parking lot. If there is no space in the parking lot, FULL message is displayed in the board when the sensor senses the car. In the case of the fixed customers, when the customer comes in the front of the barrier , has to enter the ticket in the control pillar , it checks for the validation of the card and after t he ticket is read the customer needs to taker the ticket back and as soon as the customer takes the ticket, the barrier is lifted and the customer can enter the parking lot. In case of the fixed customers , the customer needs to go to the exit gate and insert the ticket again to the exit control pillar , the ticket is read again and required deduction of the amount is done and the ticket comes out of the slot , after the customers takes back the ticket, the barrier is opened and the customer is ready to leave. In case of the ordinary customers, initially the customers need to go to the payment booth first, in the payment booth the ticket which was initiated in the entry gate is read and the customer is asked for the required amount (Aalsalem, Khan Dhabbah, 2015). After the required amount is paid, the ticket return to the customer and the customer needs to go to the exit gate and again insert the ticket in the exit control barrier pillar slot, after the ticket is read and the payme nt is verified the gate opened for going out. Records of the entire transaction is taken. System capabilities Generate ticket automatically using the sensors to detect a car. When entry ticket it generated, open the entry barrier automatically. Collect payment according to the entry ticket Open the exit barrier after the payment is done. Sense the parking lot if full. Detect the tickets in case of the fixed customers. Business Benefits Reduces the cost of the manual employees Automation helps in the better time management Helps in better cost management Resources Required: In order to of smooth going on of the parking system, there are lot of required resources. Although all the systems are automated, someone needs to supervise the entire program. The hardware requirement of the system are the control pillars in both the entry and the exit gates. The control pillar consists of the ticket printing and reading systems, the electronic message boards, the barriers and the sensors to sense the cars presence (Barone et al., 2013). Timers are also a key component of the entire system. Other than this the pay both contains the card readers and the cash readers. The entire system is controlled by the master software (developed by the COLLINS). The system also requires a regular security checks which are done by the security inspectors in a fixed interval of time. Cameras and other security equipments are also a part of the systems. Although the entire systems are fully secured, and all possible security measurements are taken in order to reduce any chaos on the parking lot. Some of the risk that may occur are, due too systems failure ticket is issued but there is parking space in the parking lot. One of the other major issue is forceful breaking of the exit barrier is one of the major risk in the system. Thefts inside the parking complex is also a major risk and steps are there to reduce such acts (Geng Cassandras, 2013). Also, there are manual patrolling done by the security offices to reduce such acts Other of the few minor risks are the failure of the payment systems and other technical faults. In order to eradicate this type of technical faults regular checks of the systems are done by the organisation (Wreiner et al.,2012). Other than this there are security cameras which tracks every corner of the parking lots to reduce any offence. References Aalsalem, M. Y., Khan, W. Z., Dhabbah, K. M. (2015, July). An automated vehicle parking monitoring and management system using ANPR cameras. InAdvanced Communication Technology (ICACT), 2015 17th International Conference on(pp. 706-710). IEEE. Alfatihi, S., Chihab, S., Alj, Y. S. (2013, January). Intelligent parking system for car parking guidance and damage notification. InIntelligent Systems Modelling Simulation (ISMS), 2013 4th International Conference on(pp. 24-29). IEEE. Barone, R. E., Giuffr, T., Siniscalchi, S. M., Morgano, M. A., Tesoriere, G. (2013). Architecture for parking management in smart cities.IET Intelligent Transport Systems,8(5), 445-452. Bonde, D. J., Shende, R. S., Kedari, A. S., Gaikwad, K. S., Bhokre, A. U. (2014, January). Automated car parking system commanded by Android application. InComputer Communication and Informatics (ICCCI), 2014 International Conference on(pp. 1-4). IEEE. Geng, Y., Cassandras, C. G. (2013). New smart parking system based on resource allocation and reservations.IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems,14(3), 1129-1139. Mahmud, S. A., Khan, G. M., Rahman, M., Zafar, H. (2013). A survey of intelligent car parking system.Journal of applied research and technology,11(5), 714-726. Rao, Y. R. (2017). Automatic smart parking system using Internet of Things (IOT).Int J Eng Technol Sci Res,4(5). Soni, E., Kaur, K., Kumar, A. (2013). Design And Development Of RFID Based Automated Car Parking System.The International Journal of Mathematics, Science, Technology and Management,2(2), 6-8. Sumathi, V., Varma, N. P., Sasank, M. (2013). Energy efficient automated car parking system.Int. J. Eng. Technol,5(3), 2848-2852. Wreiner, T., Mrtensson, I., Arnell, O., Gonzalez, N., Holmlid, S., Segelstrm, F. (2012, September). Exploring Service Blueprints for Multiple Actors: A Case Study of Car Parking Services. InConference Proceedings ServDes. 2009; DeThinking Service; ReThinking Design; Oslo Norway 24-26 November 2009(No. 059, pp. 213-223). Linkping University Electronic Press.

Thin Layer Chromatography Lab Report Sample

Thin Layer Chromatography Lab Report Paper Chromatography works on the principle that different impounds will have different solubility and adsorption to the two different phases between which are to be partitioned. Thin Layer Chromatography (TTL) is a solid-liquid technique. The mixture is observed when it is in two different phase; a solid (stationary phase) and a liquid (moving phase). Thin Layer Chromatography (TTL) is a technique which is sensitive, cheap and fast. A thin layer chromatograph plate is used to identify drug component under LIVE. It is used to support the identity of a compound in a mixture when the Roof a compound is compared with the RFC of a known compound. Results Sample I Distance between start line and spot I Distance between start line and front line I RFC I Aspirin | 3. 1 CM 3. CM | 0. 912 | Caffeine | 0. 7 CM | 3. 4 CM | 0. 206 | Unknown XSL)Unknown Component 12)Unknown Component 2 | 1)3. 1 cam)O. 7 cam 1)3. 4 cam)3. 4 CM | | RFC -distance traveled by the substance /distance traveled by the solvent front Discussion By examining the functional groups of the analgesic drug components, the relative strength of their polarities can be determined. For example, if a compound contains carboxylic acid, alcohol or amine functional groups, it should be very polar. If a compound contains ketene, allayed, ester, amide, or ether functional groups, it should be polar. Lastly, if a compound contains methyl or alkyl substituted functional groups, it should be non-polar. Thus, since caffeine has an amine and amide group, its relative polarity is the highest in comparison to the other three ingredients. By understanding the relative polarities of the analgesic drugs, one could determine how the compounds will behave during the TTL separation. The stationary phase, silica gel in this experiment, is more polar, causing more polar components of a mixture to be more attracted to it. We will write a custom essay sample on Thin Layer Chromatography Lab Report specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Thin Layer Chromatography Lab Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Thin Layer Chromatography Lab Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Thus, the more polar components will move more slowly and the less polar components will move faster on the TTL plates, having the highest RFC values. That is why in this particular experiment, caffeine, the most polar compound, has the smallest RFC value of 0. 206 ; aspirin which is less polar than caffeine, has RFC value of 0. 912. Conclusion In conclusion thin layer chromatography is a useful technique when trying to identify compounds and see how they separate. It is also a useful tool to see how polar or monopole a compound is. Overall the lab was very successful and the results that were found were solid.

Says Who Music Censorship in the New Millenium essays

Says Who Music Censorship in the New Millenium essays Citizenship in America holds many rights. Among these rights are the right to vote, the right to bear arms, and the most widely treasured but largely manipulated, right to free speech. As a citizen of America the right to free speech comes along with many responsibilities, but for the small percentage that exercise their right of free speech to a large public forum, it comes with many stipulations. The more prominent figures under a barrage of criticism are those involved in the arts. In our history classic books have been burned, news stories have been edited, and music has been turned off. Whats interesting about this group is that the latter is not covered by the first amendment. In this essay I will be exploring the accusations made based on the influence of music, the backlash of the artists, and hypothesize how the scapegoat accusations and censorship of music will affect the twenty first century. First I would like to address the idea of music censorship. When the majority of the population thinks of music censorship the first amendment comes to mind. Americans are mislead in this assumption. The first amendment states, Congress shall make no law representing an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or of the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and petition the Government for a redress of grievances. From this one may assume that the censorship of music is prohibited based on the law of our constitution. However, when music is censored, our government does not do it, but instead by special interest groups. In the instances that court hearings are conducted to determine whether or not an artist or artists have the right to produce and mass market their work, the court hearings are rarely tried as a civil rights hearing. According to existing laws, art is constitutionally prote cted speech. But mu...

Why You Shouldnt Trust US News College Rankings

Why You Shouldn't Trust US News College Rankings SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips US News is probably the most popular source out there for college rankings. While US News rankings of colleges purport to be highly accurate, they can be misleading in certain important respects. If you make decisions based purely on the US News college rankings, you might end up being miserable. In this article, I’ll go over why you shouldn’t make judgments about colleges solely based on their rankings in US News. What Types of Rankings Does US News Provide? US News divides its college rankings into four different categories.The categories are based on the 2010 Basic Classification system developed by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.This system has 12 categories of schools, but US News condenses them into four.These include: National Universities These are schools that offer master's and doctoral degrees along with a full range of undergraduate majors.This category contains â€Å"research universities†, where there is a strong emphasis on research and government subsidies are often provided for research endeavors.There are 280 universities that fall into this category, including 173 public schools, 100 private schools, and 7 for-profit schools. National Liberal Arts Colleges These are colleges that emphasize undergraduate education and give out at least half of their degrees in liberal arts disciplines including languages and literature, biology and life sciences, philosophy, cultural studies, and psychology.There are 227 of these colleges, 221 private, 27 public, and one for profit. Regional Universities These colleges are similar to National Universities in that they offer both a full range of undergraduate majors and master’s programs.However, they offer limited or nonexistent doctoral programs.There are 620 Regional Universities, including 262 public, 346 private, and 12 for profit. Regional Colleges These are colleges that focus on undergraduate education but have less of a liberal arts emphasis (award less than half of their degrees in liberal arts disciplines).There are 364 regional colleges that include 94 public schools, 253 private schools, and 17 for-profit schools. It’s important to consider these categories because they should affect how you view the rankings.US News specifically states that you shouldn’t compare the rankings of two colleges across two different categories; the schools are so different that making a direct comparison is not logical.You can compare the actual statistics (such as admissions rate, student retention, and average class size), but in terms of rank itself, a school that’s ranked 40th in the National Universities category is not objectively â€Å"worse† than a school that’s ranked 32nd in the National Liberal Arts Colleges category. Very liberal art How Does US News Rank Colleges? There is a strong methodology behind the ranking system that US News uses for colleges, and it changes often to adapt to changing conditions in higher education.Many factors are considered, and percentage weights are given to each component of the assessment. A total weight of 30% is given to factors related to student retention and graduation rates (meaning this is the most highly considered single factor in the ranking process) Graduation and retention measures are given a weight of 22.5% A 7.5% weight is devoted to a measure of whether a school is over or underperforming based on the number of students that graduate (comparing the expected vs. actual graduation rate) US News gives a 22.5% percentage weight to a school’s academic reputation scores For National Universities and National Liberal Arts Colleges, this is based on a peer survey of academics (weighted 15%) and a survey of high school counselors (weighted 7.5%) For Regional Universities and Regional Colleges, it is based solely on a survey of the academic peer group for the full 22.5% The remaining weight of 47.5% is devoted to hard statistics about the school including measures of academic quality such as selectivity, faculty information, financial resources, and alumni giving. To create school scores, US News gathers statistics in 16 areas related to the academic quality of the school. Each is assigned a percentage based on US News’ â€Å"judgments about which measures of quality matter most†. US News publishes the numerical rank of the top 75% of schools in each of the four categories. Remaining schools are placed in the â€Å"second tier† of rankings where specific numerical ranking is not listed (they’re just put in alphabetical order). The gold star that US News gives to colleges in the second tier. What’s Not to Trust? When I say you shouldn’t trust the rankings, I don’t mean that US News is deliberately misleading students.What I mean is that you shouldn’t put ALL your trust in these rankings and disregard your other preferences about college.You should also be aware of some shortcomings that may cause the rankings to exclude certain schools or rank colleges lower than they would be ranked on a list of â€Å"Best Colleges for You, Student Reading This Article†.Here are some things you should know before consulting the US News rankings in your college search: Some schools won’t be ranked if they don't meet the criteria In fact, there are 148 colleges that are â€Å"unranked† within the four categories listed above.These schools may be unranked for a variety of reasons - these include: Lack of regional accreditation Fewer than 200 students enrolled Do not use the SAT or ACT in admissions decisions Not enough responses on the US News peer assessment survey US News lists unranked schools, but they are put in alphabetical order at the end of each college category without any value judgment.This means that if you’re interested in very small colleges or colleges that don’t use the SAT or ACT in admissions decisions, the rankings may not help you much. The most common reason for a school to be unranked is that it doesn’t use standardized tests.US News argues that there isn’t enough data to compare the school to other institutions in the category without test scores, so it has to remain unranked.This may be a valid point, but it means that schools that may otherwise have solid academics are excluded from rankings, leaving you with a slightly less complete picture of the college landscape. There is an emphasis on ultimate results and academic rigor over quality of student life On the website for US News, it states, â€Å"over time, the ranking model has put less emphasis on input measures of quality – which look at characteristics of the students, faculty and other resources going into the educational process – and more emphasis on output measures, which look at the results of the educational process, such as graduation and freshman retention rates.†There is no doubt that graduation rates are important, and they do say a lot about the quality of a college.However, they will tell you very little about whether a school is a nice place to spend four years, especially if the school is very academically rigorous and prestigious. Most students will graduate because they’re very driven, but that doesn't tell you whether or not they enjoyed their time there. The US News rankings are based on hard statistics and information gleaned from academic peer reviews about the quality of the school.While this is very useful in determining how favorably the school is viewed from the heights of the academic Ivory Tower, it isn’t always the best metric for conducting your search process.Even though focusing on outcome does make sense to a certain degree, it also fails to fully evaluate the quality of the student experience.This can contribute to a somewhat harmful â€Å"ends justify the means† mindset that leads students to spend years in places where they are outwardly successful but inwardly unhappy. The official motto of both US News and your one friend who won't shut up about CrossFit Prestige plays an important role For many students, prestige remains an important factor in deciding whether to attend a college.It’s hard to resist the allure of a school that will impress other people and potentially get you good jobs down the road based on its name recognition. This is the reason why prestige is considered so strongly by US News in its rankings (in the form of ratings from academic peer groups and guidance counselors).Of course, prestige correlates with selectivity in admissions and respect from the higher education community at large, so it does indicate some measure of academic quality. However, measuring schools based on prestige can have the unfortunate consequence of discounting some up and coming colleges or colleges that may have a unique focus and be less well-known.Make sure youuse other resources to research schools that have the criteria you’re looking for - even if they’re not ranked especially high, they may be a much better fit for your goals. Private schools always rank higher In the US News rankings, private schools are always more highly ranked than public schools.This can be misleading, and shouldn’t dissuade you from attending a public school!The reason this happens is because the ranking model US News uses is naturally kinder to private schools: they usually score higher on measures of selectivity, student retention rates, and small class sizes.Since public schools tend to be larger and less selective, they end up with lower rankings, but that means very little for high achieving students who choose to attend public schools. Though the statistics are often less impressive than those of private schools, the public college experience may allow many students to thrive.For students who are willing to seek out resources, public schools are often good choices because of the amount of different programs and high-level research facilities they offer.Rankings also don’t consider the diversity of social life at schools and the opportunities in the form ofextracurricular activities. Hi! I'm Chase, your new roommate. I like sailing and refusing to look at the world from anyone else's perspective. The rankings won’t help you to find an affordable school If you’re trying to avoid debt in college, you’ll need to look at other lists to figure out which schools are the most affordable.Rankings in US News have nothing to do with the cost of schools, so they won’t give you the perspective you’re looking for if cost is a major issue. I Feel So Adrift in the Sea of Colleges without My US News Ranking Water Wings - What Do I Do? You don’t have to ignore the US News rankings just because they’re not totally well-rounded in terms of their assessment metrics and inclusivity.What you should do is make sure that you are aware of what they can and can’t tell you about a college.It’s important that you supplement your views on schools with other resources that will give you a more complete picture of what student life is like and how you might fare at the college. To their credit, US News fully acknowledges this fact:â€Å"the editors of U.S. News believe rankings are only one of many criteria students should consider in choosing a college. Simply because a school is top in its category does not mean it is the top choice for everyone. The rankings should not be used as the sole basis to choose one school over another.†Academics are very important, but your life at college will be so much more than just the quality of your classes and how impressive your degree looks in a frame.You should make sure that you like the location of the school, the housing options, the food, the campus life, and the price tag before you make a decision. And in case you don't like the food, bring a bottle of sriracha. You could put sriracha on woodchips and I would probably eat them. Use the rankings as a rough guide to the quality of schools. The top five schools are the most reputable, then the next set of ten, then the next set of ten, and so on. A school that's in the top 20 is going to provide a more intellectual community and more opportunities in general than a school that's ranked in the 40s. However, within each group of ten there won't be much variability in terms of academic quality and reputation.This might help you to make a decision about where to apply after doing some outside research. However, even if you're trying to decide between two schools that are ranked very differently, you shouldn't just go by rankings. If the lower ranked school is a great fit for you, and the higher ranked school is a poor fit, you should choose the better fit regardless of ranking! As US News also says on its website: â€Å"A prospective student's academic and professional ambitions, personal preferences, financial resources and scholastic record, as well as a school's size, cost, programs, atmosphere and location, should play major roles in determining a college choice.†Once you’ve considered the other factors the are most important to you, you can move on to potentially comparing schools based on the academic rankings presented in US News. What's Next? When you apply to college, it's important to have both reach and safety schools so that you don't sell yourself short or end up without any options. Learn more about how to choose reach schools and safety schools. If you're planning on consulting the US News rankings, you should figure out whether you're more interested in public or private colleges first. Find out the differences between the two. Size and location are also very important factors to consider before looking at rankings. These articles will tell you about the pros and cons of going to college close to home and the main differences between large and small colleges. Want to improve your SAT score by 240 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The Crucible by Arthur Miller Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Crucible by Arthur Miller - Essay Example the crimes he did not commit the author started thinking about the concepts of â€Å"victims† and â€Å"villains† and of the controversy of the absolute truth. It turns out that it is rather easy to pass from one category into another because determining truth and lie still requires enormous efforts even in court. Social moral and religion create enormous pressure on each and every human and fragile psyche sometimes cannot withstand that. In reality most of people are accusatory and would rather point to someone else`s vice than admit one`s guilt. For some people their reputation turns out to be much more important than ultimate truth. Under pressure of the society and in fear of punishment people are prone to change their beliefs and opinions and reveal their faint-heartedness. But it is well-known that people are prone to show their real nature only in critical situation. So extreme circumstances in which the characters of Miller`s play find themselves reveal their tr ue nature: some turn out to be villains and some victims of social moral, some are prone to bend under the pressure of probable punishment and some only find inner power in difficult situation, some act out of altruism and some care about their own life and happiness. Three characters of the play, Reverend Hale, Reverend Parris, and John Proctor, find themselves in extreme situation and each of them transforms his views throughout the play to show eventually his true self. Despite the fact that in 17th century people live under close observation of church, they still act as ordinary people-make mistakes, lie, make sins. In his play â€Å"The Crucible† there is a number of characters who switch the roles of â€Å"victims† to â€Å"villains† depending on their words and actions. It is sometimes very difficult to blame people strictly taking into account fragile In his play Miller suggests that it is impossible to remain in one role of either â€Å"a victim† or â€Å"a villain† for long because

Japanese Spirit, Western Thinks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Japanese Spirit, Western Thinks - Essay Example According to the essay "Japanese Spirit, Western Thinks" findings, Japan has been an expert in taking an idea and transforming it into something sensational. In manufacturing, for example, Japanese practice has greatly advanced by creating a hybrid based on the material and technologies from the West, while maintaining the traditional processes that have proven their worth for centuries. Since practically the most difficult part of ensuring an ideology’s success is to come up with the ideology in the first place, Japan was able to bypass this step and leaped forward to the modification and implementation part, thus keeping their efforts to a minimum while producing the most optimal results at the same time. Furthermore, their selective adaptation allowed Japan to just pick out the aspects of Western culture and ideologies that would apply to their own local flavor. Thus, the result was most often better by leaps and bounds compared to the original. Thus, it may be quite unfair for the author to claim that â€Å"Japan's leaders continue to use these cultural excuses, as they have for 150 years, to mask their own efforts to cling to power and prestige. The ugly, undemocratic and illiberal aspects of Japanese traditionalism continue to lurk behind its admirable elements.† In fact, as the author himself pointed out almost bitterly, Japan has applied this methodology many years before the coming of the Westerners. As an illustration, the religion and language has remained quite intact despite the surge of Western ideologies towards their direction.

Socialization Definition Essay Example for Free

Socialization Definition Essay Socialization: Lifelong (process) social experience by which people develop their human potential learn culture Personality: A persons fairly consistent patterns of acting, thinking and feeling The social Sciences: The role of Nurture * Psychologist John B Watson developed a theory called behaviorism, which holds that behaviour is not instinctive but learned. (Nature not nurture) * Nurture is our nature Studies of non human primates * Psychologist Harry and Margaret placed rhesus monkeys (surprisingly there behaviour is same as humans) in various conditions of social isolation – * They found that complete isolation for 6 months seriously disturbs the monkey’s development * Infant monkeys in cages with an artificial mother made of wire with wooden head – they survived by could not interact with others when placed in a group. * Harlow’s concluded it is important that adults cradle infants affectionately. * Infants monkey could recover from about three months of isolation – 3 months+ cause serious damage Studies of isolated children * Anna died at the age of 10 with a blood disorder. * Isabelle spoke around 2000 words. At the age of 14 she was in grade 6. * Genie abused by her parents. She was tied to a potty chair at the age of 2. She lives with adults. Sigmund Freud’s Elements of Personality Lived in Vienna at times when most Europeans considered human behaviour to be biologically fixed. Trained as a physician, Freud gradually turned to the study of personally and mental disorders. Basic Human Needs * Biology plays a major role in human development * Humans have two basic needs that are present at birth: * 1st sexual and emotional bonding (which is called life instinct) * 2nd death instinct or thanatos (Greek: death) * These opposing forces, operating at an unconscious level create deep inner tensions Freud’s Model of Personality * Freud combined basic needs the influence of society into a model of personality with 3 parts: * id (Latin word for It) – represents the human beings basic drive, which are unconscious demand immediate satisfaction. id is present at birth (newborn demand attention, touching and food). Society oppose the self centered id which is why the first words a child learns is no. * Ego (Latin word for I) – A persons conscious efforts to balance innate pleasure – seeking drives with the demands of society. This develops are we become aware of ourselves and at the same time realize that we cannot have everything we want. * Superego (Latin meaning above or beyond ego) – Is the cultural values and norms internalized by an individual. Tells us why we cannot have everything we want. This begins to form as a child becomes aware of parental demands and matures when a child understands everyone’s behaviour should take account cultural norms. BALANCE Freud’s Model of Personality id: The human beings basic drives| Ego: a person’s conscious efforts to balance innate pleasure – seeking drives with demands of society| Superego: the cultural values and norms internalized by an individual | Personality Development * If conflicts are not solved during childhood, they may surface as personality disorders later on * Culture in the form of superego, contains selfish demands – look beyond their own desires * Sublimation – redirects selfish drives into socially acceptable behaviour: Marriage = Sex / Sports = anger What are the three elements in Freud’s Model of personality? Explain how each one operates. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development   Swiss psychologist studied human cognition – how people think and understand. (4 stages) * The sensorimotor stage: the level of human development at which individuals experience the world only though their senses. About 2 years – infant only knows the world through 5 senses. * The pre operational stage (enter at age 2): The level of human development at which individuals first use language and other symbols. In this stage, children begin to think about the world mentally and use imagination. (Toy as their fav but cannot explain what kinds of toys they like). They cannot judge size, weight, or volume. ( water cup example, age 5) * The concrete operational stage: the level of human development at which individuals first see causal connections in their surroundings. Around age 7-11 children focus on things and why they happen and also attach one more symbol to it. ( My birthday and Monday) * The formal operational stage: the level of human development at which individuals think abstractly and critically. Around age 12 young people begin to reason in depth. (Teacher and a job that helps others) Sensorimotor stage: the level of human development at which individuals experience the world only through (5) senses | Pre operational stage: The level of human development at which individuals first use language and other symbols | Concrete operational stage: the level of human development at which individuals first see causal connections in their surroundings | Formal operational stage:The level of human development at which individuals think abstractly and critically| What are Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development? What does his theory teach us about socialization? Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development (moral reasoning) * Pre conventional – how people judge situations as right or wrong (child grabs something shiny on the table CP) – individual needs * Conventional Level 2nd stage – appears by teen years. People tend to lose their selfishness. (stealing to help and stealing a ipad are different) * Post conventional level 3rd stage – people move beyond their society norms to consider abstract ethical principles. They think of freedom or justice. (Rosa Parks and racial injustice) What are Kohlberg’s three stages of moral development? What does his theory teach us about socialization? Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Gender and Moral Development * Compared the moral development of girls and boys = 2 genders use different standards of rightness * Boys: Justice perspective – formal rules to define right and wrong (stealing is wrong) Girls: care responsibility perspective – judging situation with a personal relationship (stealing to feed) * Rule based male reasoning as superior to the Pearson based female approach * Young girls start eager and confident but there self esteem slips away as they pass through adolescence * Why? because of socialization of girls According to Gilligan, how do boys and girls differ in their approach to understating right and wrong? Self: the part of an individual’s personality composed of self awareness and self image George Herbert Mead’s Theory of the Social Self * Developed a theory of social behaviourism to explain how social experience develops an individual’s personality * Meads central concept: The self.   * First: the self is not their at birth: it develops. Mead rejected the idea that personality is guided by biological drives (Freud said it is). * Second: self develops only with social experience, as people interact with others. Without interaction, the body grows but no self emerges. * Third: social: experience is the exchange of symbols. (we attach meaning with wave of hand, smile) * Fourth: seeking meaning leads us to imagine the intentions of others. * Fifth: understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the others point of view. (how someone will catch a ball we throw) – taking the role of the other)

The Effects of Alcohol on the Body Essay -- Alcohol Drinking Liquor Es

The Effects of Alcohol on the Body You are in college, you are at a party, and you are drunk. You, and the people around you, know you are drunk by your disorientated behavior but do they know what is causing you to act in this manner? Most likely not. Most people do not think about what the alcohol inside them is doing, the only thing they are worried about is the buzz that they get from it. Moderate drinking is alright but drinking excessively can wear out the body.   Three important things to know about alcohol are how it enters and leaves the body, the effects of alcohol, and how the body responds to alcohol. After the drink is consumed, the alcohol enters the blood stream. After it enters the blood stream it dissolves in the water in the blood and gets carried throughout the body. The alcohol then enters the tissues and dissolves in the water in the tissue; it does this for every tissue but fat tissue. Alcohol is not able to dissolve in fat so it is incapable of dissolving in fat tissue. This explains why women feel the effect, and get drunk quicker than men do. Women tend to have more fat, whereas men tend to have more muscle. Because muscle has more water, the alcohol becomes more diluted in a male. Once the alcohol is absorbed into the body it leaves in three different ways: the kidney, lungs and liver. The kidney removes 5 percent of the alcohol in the urine. One of the duties of the kidney is to regulate the composition of blood in the body. Through this process the blood level is maintained by the removal of unwanted substances from the blood and into the urine. Another 5 percent of the alcohol is exhaled through the lungs. Ever wonder how a breathalyzer works? When the blood enters the lungs some alcohol m... ...affects almost every part of your body since the alcohol is circulated throughout the bloodstream. The affects of alcohol depend almost entirely on how high the person's blood alcohol content is. The most significant thing a person can do to avoid harming themselves is to pay attention to how much they drink, and how quick they consume the alcohol. The three important things to know about alcohol are how the alcohol enters and leaves the body, how the body is affected and what the body does in response to the alcohol. By knowing these three things a person can drink responsibly through the knowledge of what is going on inside their body. The next time you are out at a party pay attention to not only how much you drink but also keep and eye on your friends. But remember, you do not need alcohol to have a good time and it is definitely not the answer to your problems. The Effects of Alcohol on the Body Essay -- Alcohol Drinking Liquor Es The Effects of Alcohol on the Body You are in college, you are at a party, and you are drunk. You, and the people around you, know you are drunk by your disorientated behavior but do they know what is causing you to act in this manner? Most likely not. Most people do not think about what the alcohol inside them is doing, the only thing they are worried about is the buzz that they get from it. Moderate drinking is alright but drinking excessively can wear out the body.   Three important things to know about alcohol are how it enters and leaves the body, the effects of alcohol, and how the body responds to alcohol. After the drink is consumed, the alcohol enters the blood stream. After it enters the blood stream it dissolves in the water in the blood and gets carried throughout the body. The alcohol then enters the tissues and dissolves in the water in the tissue; it does this for every tissue but fat tissue. Alcohol is not able to dissolve in fat so it is incapable of dissolving in fat tissue. This explains why women feel the effect, and get drunk quicker than men do. Women tend to have more fat, whereas men tend to have more muscle. Because muscle has more water, the alcohol becomes more diluted in a male. Once the alcohol is absorbed into the body it leaves in three different ways: the kidney, lungs and liver. The kidney removes 5 percent of the alcohol in the urine. One of the duties of the kidney is to regulate the composition of blood in the body. Through this process the blood level is maintained by the removal of unwanted substances from the blood and into the urine. Another 5 percent of the alcohol is exhaled through the lungs. Ever wonder how a breathalyzer works? When the blood enters the lungs some alcohol m... ...affects almost every part of your body since the alcohol is circulated throughout the bloodstream. The affects of alcohol depend almost entirely on how high the person's blood alcohol content is. The most significant thing a person can do to avoid harming themselves is to pay attention to how much they drink, and how quick they consume the alcohol. The three important things to know about alcohol are how the alcohol enters and leaves the body, how the body is affected and what the body does in response to the alcohol. By knowing these three things a person can drink responsibly through the knowledge of what is going on inside their body. The next time you are out at a party pay attention to not only how much you drink but also keep and eye on your friends. But remember, you do not need alcohol to have a good time and it is definitely not the answer to your problems.

An Essay About Lalo Guerrero

He had recorded about 700 songs. He was invited by three presidents, including former president, Carter, Bush, Sr. and Clinton, to the White House.   His songs have remained in the hearts of every Chicano, for his songs have appeared in almost all of the Latin music genres yet to be known, including folk songs and children songs.   He was born on the Christmas Eve of 1916 (Original Chicano Productions, 2007). HE was named as Eduardo Guerrero Jr. Early Career Early in his career, as most Mexican have experienced in his time, he and his music was rejected by his fellow Mexican and was labeled as â€Å"pocho†. His career started on 1939 as a member of the group Los Carlistas that was under the production of Vocalion Records. This man was born in Tucson Arizona and has not even finished High School. Through his perseverance and his faith to his music he is now the well-known â€Å"father of Chicano Music†, Mr. Lalo Guerrero. Born in a family who has just got enough income, Lalo has pushed his way to being the musician, writer, composer and performer that he is through hardship. He performed on movies such as His Kind of Woman and Boots and Saddles.   Later on he has toured throughout the Southwest with his orchestra which played and performed at Los Angeles. Lalo Guerrero’s Legacy When his single, â€Å"Pancho Lopez†, became a national hit, he purchased his own club and has his orchestra perform there every night. For about 60 years, Lalo Guerrero has captured the hearts and mind of the Chicanos with his heart warming music and his captivating performances. He continually performs for 60 years in the United States of America, Mexico and even to France. At the age of 80 he still manages to sing and record songs, as a matter of fact, his last album, which is â€Å"Chavez Ravine† was actually recorded when he was already 86. It is quite amazing that at such golden age the father of Chicano music had greatly helped advance the Chicano music to a new level of audience. According to Lalo Guerrero himself in an interview made by John Rogers Associated Press on December of 2005, â€Å"the bilingual parody hit, ‘Pancho Lopez’ have started his success†.   It was actually drafted from the famous novelty song, â€Å"The Ballad of Davy Crockett†, which was used in the 1955 Walt Disney production, Lalo Guerrero using its melody have invented a parody that stars a Mexican character that originated from the small state Chihuahua (John Rogers Associated Press, 2004). It was rewritten in English to captivate an ever more large audience which have loved and cherished Lalo Guerrero’s other hit parodies, such as, the ever famous â€Å"Pancho Claus† along with â€Å"Tacos for Two†, â€Å"There’s No Tortillas† and â€Å"Elvis Perez†, to name a few. Luis Valdez has acclaimed his movie entitled â€Å"Zoot Suit† to LAlo Guerrero’s Pachuco hit â€Å"Marijuana Boogie†. He was considered as the father of Chicano Music, not only because of his contribution to Chicano Music itself but also since â€Å"he has done the music way before it was even considered as a genre† (John Rogers Associated Press, 2004). His concept revolves on merging the traditional Mexican music with the genre’s that were in the mainstream. His dream and his passion are to perform in a large crowd and make people happy thru the means of his music. He has brought the Chicano Music the recognition that it needs, through his efforts to make the Chicano music known and enjoyable. The Achievements and What He has Become Late in his life he has received several medals and recognitions, including the National Medal of the Arts that was given to him by President Bill Clinton himself. Lalo Guerrero was a face of a happy man, a man who has completed his life (Guerrero, 2007). In Aristotle’s word, he was a man who has lived a good life. He has achieved greatness and he was satisfied with whatever it is that he has accomplished. He himself remark that he have lived a â€Å"great life† and he is proud of living the life he had the way he did. LAlo Guerrero, again in an interviewed made by John Rogers Associated Press, states that â€Å"everything that has happened in his singing career was never planned†. He further clarifies that at first he has been writing songs just about anything and everything that pops to his mind. The musicians and performers that have influenced his music, includes, Frank Sinatra, Elvis Presley, The Beatles and Chuck Berry (John Rogers Associated Press, 2004). He himself has influence a lot of other singers and performers. Comedian Cheech Marin admired him for the way that Lalo Guerrero have combine â€Å"street-humor and music†, she regarded his works as a â€Å"Chicano Art†. Other musicians which recognized his influence are Linda Ronstadt and Culture Clash (John Rogers Associated Press, 2004). Lalo Guerrero’s Memory Lalo Guerrero died on March 17, 2005, peacefully, contented and fulfilled. He has lived eighty eight golden years sixty years of which was dedicated to music and performance. He was one of the great artists who not only became great singers but has also become great achievers. He did not only create songs but have created a new music. It is a music that is considered distinctly as Chicano music, a music that stays in the hearts of those who have lived to hear them. It is the music that would repeatedly remind the different generations of Lalo Guerrero. When our generation and the generation that would come after ours talks about Chicano Music or even just mention the term, Lalo Guerrero would come to mind. He has become the trade mark of Chicano music and even of the Chicano’s itself. Lalo, have dedicated his life to the enrichment and proliferation of Chicano music. References Guerrero, M. (2007). Lalo Guerrero: The Father of Chicano Music. http://markguerrero.net/8.php John Rogers Associated Press. (December 25, 2004). Father Of Chicano Music Still Rocks. Desert News. Find Articles. Com. Retrieved on October 27, 2007. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20041225/ai_n11495118. Original Chicano Productions. (2007). Lalo Guerrero: The Original Chicano. Retrieved on October 27, 2007. Retrieved from the World Wide Web

The Colonial Experience in West Africa

The Twentieth Century brought with it vast changes for the peoples of West Africa. The yoke of colonialism bound them together into a new political, economic, and social order. It was as if hundreds of years of history had suddenly ended, and begun again anew. In the wake of the Berlin West Africa Conference, in 1885, the great powers of Europe – Britain, France, Germany, and even Portugal and Belgium – had carved up West Africa among themselves. European overlords either completely replaced, or else adopted a â€Å"supervisory† position over the native African authorities. Proud kingdoms, like those of the Asante, Benin, and Dahomey, found themselves forced to adapt or disappear, as West Africans struggled to make sense of a world that had been turned completely upside down and inside out. For â€Å"inside out,† could easily describe the reversal of economic roles that came along with European conquest. Formerly, European traders had stayed close to the coast, allowing the African rulers and merchants to supply Europe and her New World colonies with slaves and other â€Å"merchandise. The British had finally succeeded in ending the slave trade some years before, and many of the coastal kingdoms of West Africa had languished as a result. Some had been almost wholly dependent upon the trade in human beings – now there would have to be new sources of revenue. For the most part, these new sources of income would be developed by Europeans who would exploit West Africa's people and resources for the benefit of their home countries. However, the Africans would also learn from their new masters. Some of them would obtain a Western education, or work to introduce the ideas of the modern industrial world to Africa. European science, technology, education, political, economic, cultural, and religious ideas would all have a profound impact on West Africa. The pre-colonial relationship between Europeans and West Africans was one of mutual trade. In the first half of the Nineteenth Century, Europeans vastly increased their purchases of palm oil, and also continued to buy tropical hardwoods, while Africans received the products of Europe's industrial revolution: cotton and woolen textiles and iron. 1 It was only as direct European influence began to increase that economic conditions were gradually modified. The introduction of cocoa by European missionaries in the 1860s, led to its becoming a major cash crop and primary export by the earliest period of European colonial domination, around 1900. Gold and coca were the mainstays of the economy in the Gold Coast (now Ghana). To keep up with their seemingly insatiable demands for these and other products, the British, French, and other others, introduced more modern techniques of production. In particular, they employed industrial methods of mining, and built railroads and port facilities to enable a vastly increased flow of goods. Yet it would be wrong to think that was no African response to changed economic conditions. Already, in the late 1800s, African merchant families, such as the Sarbahs, began to encourage rubber production: In contrast to the palm oil trade, the rubber trade, because of a greater monetary return per unit of labour input and weight, drew into its orbit thousands of producers from the deep interior, including Sefwi, Kwahu, Asante and the distant states of Brong-Ahafo, all more than 100 miles from the coast. The rubber trade also gave rise to a new group of middle-men or broken from the Fanti states, Asin, Denkyera, and Akim, who carried the trade to the further limits of the forest zone and in so doing accelerated the extension of the cash economy. Rubber became a major export with shipments totalling well over one million pounds volume in 1886; and by 1893, the Gold Coast ranked first among the rubber exporting countries of the British Empire and third in the world. 3 Africans were, therefore, fully able to adapt themselves to European conditions in order to increase the size and extent of their markets, even if this necessitated adopting new techniques, and even entirely new crops, like rubber. On the down side, an economy based on growing and harvesting rubber latex caused significant social upheavals. The influence of the coastal mercantile families and kingdoms waned in favor of inland economic interests. 4 Families like the Sarbahs expanded their trading networks deep into the Interior, opening up branch story, cajoling purchasers, and further turning economic focus toward the one paramount crop. They also became increasingly dependent on fluctuations in the European market. 5 Furthermore, the conflict between European sponsored economic development, and meddlesome European control can be seen in the 1920's Gold Coast, where British Governor Guggisberg pursued a policy that was in many ways detrimental to the future of the African peoples under his control: Anti-modernisation, anti-urban, and anti-development. Regulations and barriers against innovation proliferated†¦. Official policy did nothing to encourage the emergence of a commercial middle class. Its effect instead was to establish a highly formidable machinery of bureaucratic control†¦. The most damaging effect of colonial policy on the ground was the way in which it hindered the emergence of a ‘native modernizing cadre', one result of which ‘was to divert into long and bitter anti-colonial struggles much brilliant talent which could have been used creatively in development sectors'. 6 The subordination of African interests to European profits condemned West Africans to economic backwards through lack of skills and genuine opportunities. The lack of skill and opportunity open to native West Africans leads naturally to a discussion of European education and the new horizons it presented. Prior to the era of colonial domination, West Africa's peoples had had little contact with Western ideas, except for he occasional interactions with Christian missionaries. The states, large and small, of West Africa had been universally pre-industrial, and had possessed nothing in the way of modern communications, transportation, or even the kind of complex educational and political institutions that existed in the Christian and Muslim worlds. Missionaries were the first to introduce Western educational methods into West Africa: For them education took place in schools, where obedient pupils listened to teachers, took examinations, and received diplomas certifying knowledge. Discipline was important, not only to make the children study, but also to mold desirable habits and (that was usually considered to be even more important than learning itself). 7 On the whole, Western education extended only to teaching subjects that Europeans thought would be useful to their â€Å"charges. Vocational training was sufficient for people who would never have to govern themselves. 8 Nevertheless, an exposure to the Western academic tradition inspired many African families to push for a higher level of education for their children. â€Å"Few pupils wanted to undergo the cost and the hardship of study, only to be prepared for a rural life and a low living standard. † 9 In the 1930's, in French West Africa, Colonial Government officials began to formulate a new approach that appeared to look forward to a synthesis of the European and Native traditions. France's redefined mission civilisatrice [civilizing mission] was to be fulfilled†¦ by teaching the subject populations how to live according to â€Å"authentic African traditions,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ This vision of France's role overseas as the protector of indigenous cultures in the colonies challenged earlier presentations of the colonial mission that had presented France as the bearer of â€Å"European civilization† and â€Å"French culture† destined to bring Africa out of the â€Å"darkness† in which many late-nineteenth-century colonizers claimed its people lived. 10 The French administrators went so far as to strongly encourage African arts and crafts, sponsor African festivals – even to teach Africans â€Å"how to be African†(! ). In order to avoid contamination by native teachers already trained in the earlier European methods, the French actually brought in teachers from France to lead the Africans in the study of their native West African culture; these teachers being observed leading Natives in local folk dances, etc. 11 Such plans represented an interesting attempt to keep Native elites loyal to France, while at the same time, well-rooted in their Native lands and cultures. Ostensibly, such practices would avoid the â€Å"stateless† quality of Africans educated under the earlier system. Nonetheless, exposure to European educational and economic ideas – even when those ideas were fused with African traditions – could not forestall an African thirst for greater freedom and opportunity along European lines. Colonial rulers often imposed a dual system of justice – a European one for major offenses, and a Native one for those offenses deemed minor by the Colonial Authorities. The French, early on, abolished the Native courts and legal system, except in rare cases, while even under the British, it was quite clear that Native justice was distinctly secondary to the â€Å"real† justice of the Europeans. 12 Dichotomies such as these further entrenched notions of West African inferiority. The French instituted a policy of not interfering in African customs and culture, as long as those customs did not conflict with the French aim of achieving some sort of â€Å"evolution† among Africans. 13 It was taken utterly for granted that African culture was inherently inferior to French civilization. By contrast, the British authorities endeavored to maintain equilibrium by combining traditional African smallholder society with the demands of the British Cocoa Board. Rural West African society was to be maintained at all costs to prevent a breakdown of the social order, such as occurred when jobs were scarce and peasants left for the cities in the hope of finding work. There, oddly enough, the British actually encouraged the growth of an urban petit bourgeoisie in the dream of preventing rebellion. With the collapse of world markets during the Great Depression, urban and peasant unrest increased – with the noticeable difference that now a radicalized bourgeoisie was available to lead that unrest. 14 In short, the European colonial administrations of West Africa both helped and exploited Africans. With their thirst for profits, and a belief in the superiority of their own institutions, technology, and culture, they dreamed of â€Å"advancing† the native population while at the same time keeping that population economically productive, and under firm European control. Yet in so doing, they introduced many attributes of the modern world to the peoples of West Africa. European notions of development, education, and justice split traditional African life into separate public and private spheres – especially for those who embraced European learning and techniques. 15 The divide that grew up between Europeanized Africans, and those who have remained closer to their traditional ways of life remains a problem even today. One of the lasting legacies of European Colonization in West Africa was this impartial transformation; this creation of a society existing in two worlds, trained properly for neither. Once opened to the full force of the industrial (and later post-industrial) economy, the traditional African economy could not compete. At the same time, not enough West Africans were educated, in the European sense, to provide the skills and leadership to easily lead their people into a new era. European rule has left West Africa with many choices, not all of them good.

Free Essays on Indian Budism

The Chinese and India cultures are interconnected with one another. The art, architecture, religion and social standards of these great civilizations have intricate similarities and striking differences. The two have influenced each other in many ways. India spread its Buddhist beliefs to the Chinese and the Chinese introduced new trade and industry to the Indian culture. They shared many of these things unknowingly through trade and people moving through out the world. One of the major details in Indian art is the use of the tribhunga style. This style is one of creating a human form in which the stance contains three curves. These curves usually are at the hip, shoulder and head. A second detail of Indian art is the special hand positions. A piece may show one with their hand in a certain form. These defined positions will indicate a power or skill that is held by the person depicted. Many of the pieces on exhibit at the MFA’s Indian collection are religious in nature. Their religious beliefs affected their lives in all aspects. One must live the proper life in order to move on to a better one when they reach the next life. They would create many statues for each of the different gods they worshiped. These statues were referred to as Bodhisattvas. The different characteristics of these works such as stance and hand position would indicate who was represented. Many of the statues would also have multiple arms. These arms were symbolic of the deity having many talents and purposes. This may show one arm with a weapon, another with a religious item and yet another with a special hand position that indicates a special power held by that particular Bodhisattva. The art forms and styles of the Chinese culture changed often in ancient times. In each dynasty there were tell tale signs that the pieces were made in that era. These telling factors could vary greatly from colors used to materials. Many examples of these differences lie in ... Free Essays on Indian Budism Free Essays on Indian Budism The Chinese and India cultures are interconnected with one another. The art, architecture, religion and social standards of these great civilizations have intricate similarities and striking differences. The two have influenced each other in many ways. India spread its Buddhist beliefs to the Chinese and the Chinese introduced new trade and industry to the Indian culture. They shared many of these things unknowingly through trade and people moving through out the world. One of the major details in Indian art is the use of the tribhunga style. This style is one of creating a human form in which the stance contains three curves. These curves usually are at the hip, shoulder and head. A second detail of Indian art is the special hand positions. A piece may show one with their hand in a certain form. These defined positions will indicate a power or skill that is held by the person depicted. Many of the pieces on exhibit at the MFA’s Indian collection are religious in nature. Their religious beliefs affected their lives in all aspects. One must live the proper life in order to move on to a better one when they reach the next life. They would create many statues for each of the different gods they worshiped. These statues were referred to as Bodhisattvas. The different characteristics of these works such as stance and hand position would indicate who was represented. Many of the statues would also have multiple arms. These arms were symbolic of the deity having many talents and purposes. This may show one arm with a weapon, another with a religious item and yet another with a special hand position that indicates a special power held by that particular Bodhisattva. The art forms and styles of the Chinese culture changed often in ancient times. In each dynasty there were tell tale signs that the pieces were made in that era. These telling factors could vary greatly from colors used to materials. Many examples of these differences lie in ...

Process of Becoming a Climax Community

Process of Becoming a Climax Community A climax community by is a relatively stable and undisturbed biological community of animals, plants, and fungi that have evolved into a steady state of development which secures the stability of all the collective  communities. Through a natural successional  process of instability, all individual  organism ecosystems simultaneously transition  through a series of more stabilizing stages where they all finally maintain their individual positions in the community and where they become stable from egg and seed to maturity. So, all biotic communities on earth engage in a forward-moving evolutionary process that takes place in several major defined steps or stages. Until climax completion, these transitional  stages are each called a serial stage or a  sere.  In other words, a sere is an intermediate stage found in  ecological succession  in an ecosystem advancing towards a particular organisms  climax community. In many cases, there is more than one serial stage to pass through before  climax conditions are attained. A serial community is a name given to each group of biota within the succession. A  primary succession  describes primarily the plant communities that occupy a site that has not previously been vegetated. These plants can also be described as the vegetative  pioneer community.   Defining Plant Succession To understand a climax plant community, you must first understand plant succession which is simply the replacement of one plant community by another. This can occur when soils and sites are so harsh that few plants can survive and takes a very long time for plants to establish a root-hold to begin the process of succession.  When destructive agents like fire, flood and insect epidemic destroy an existing plant community, plant establishment can happen very rapidly. Primary plant succession starts on raw unvegetated land and usually  exists as a sand dune, an earth slide, a lava flow, a rock surface or a retreating glacier. It is obvious that these harsh conditions for plants would take eons for this type of exposed earth to decompose to support higher plants (with the exception of the earth slide which would start plant succession fairly quickly). Secondary plant succession generally starts on a site where some disturbance has set back a previous succession. The sere  can be continually setback which then lengthens the period to a potential  final plant community climax condition. Agricultural practices, periodic logging, pest epidemics, and wildland fire are the most common agents of secondary plant succession setbacks. Can You Define a Climax Forest? A plant community that is dominated by trees representing the last stage of natural succession  for that specific locality and environment, to some, is considered a climax forest. The name usually given to any particular climax forest is the name of the primary existing tree species and or its regional location. To be a climax forest, the trees growing within a particular geographic region should remain essentially unchanged in terms of species composition for as long as the site remains undisturbed. But, is this really a climax forest or just another late sere  that has avoided disturbance the longest. Do foresters who only manage trees over decades know enough to determine a climax forest and assume it to be the equivalent of late-stage succession? Should speculative ecologists conclude that there can never be a climax forest because cyclical disturbance (both natural and human-caused) will always be a constant in North American forests? The Climax Debate Is Still With Us The first published discussion(s) on the existence of climax communities started nearly a century ago with foundational papers written by two ecologists, Frederick Clements, and Henry Gleason. Their ideas were debated over decades and definitions of a climax changed with a greater understanding of a new science called ecology. Political winds also confused the topic with terms like virgin forests and old-growth forests. Today, most ecologists agree that climax communities are not common in the real world. They also agree that most exist in space and time and can be observed on large  time scales of many decades and on wide ranges of an  area, from a dozen acres to thousands of acres. Others believe that there can never be a real climax community because of constant disturbance over time. Foresters have adopted a silviculturally practical approach when managing large stable communities of climax tree species. They use and name a climax forest to be the final sere in terms of the stabilization of major tree species. These conditions are observed on a human timescale and can maintain specific tree species and other plants over hundreds of years. Examples of some of these are:   The coniferous forests of the Pacific Northwest.The wetlands  in North America.The redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) forests.Beech-maple of the North American Northeast.

Literature Review on the role of IMC in building and maintaining brand Article

Literature Review on the role of IMC in building and maintaining brand equity - Article Example Globalization has increased the level of competition in the domestic as well as international markets. Though this has improved competition and the quality of products, it has made consumers think twice before investing in a product. This means that consumers have become vary of their needs and selection. Unless a company is able to bring a customer to it, they will end up being sidelined for better-known brands. Pickton and Hartley observed that it was difficult to conceptualize the influences that organizations needed to achieve integration. The many levels and dimensions of integration posed individual and collective difficulties. So complex and laborious was the practice, that to implement IMC, it required the dedicated and wholesome involvement of the whole organization, right from its chief executive to their agents and vendors. Considering the complexity of such a study, this paper attempts to elicit the role of IMC in organizations; their market orientation and brand orientat ion, for they both have an important role in the implementation of IMC. This paper will strive to delve on the finer aspects of the strategic component of IMC; taking into account the cultural and learning requirements of positioning brands, and how they can build a competitive edge through brand equity. In order to understand the concept of IMC in the real-life scenario, this paper takes a look at some of the trend-setters in the highly competitive world of fashion.

Islamic Insurance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Islamic Insurance - Essay Example When the insured event doesn’t occur the insured person loses the sum invested in the policy and if the insurance claims are larger than the contributions then the insurance company is in deficit. The above three factors make conventional insurance â€Å"Haram- prohibited† in Islam. However, since safety and security is the basic human need in today’s uncertain world, therefore Muslim society needed an alternative to conventional insurance in order to secure their business transactions and personal interests. Islamic â€Å"shariah - code of conduct† is based on Muslim’s Holy book â€Å"Quran† and the sayings and traditions of the Prophet Mohammed, which preaches brotherhood and mutual interest in order to establish â€Å"just and equitable social order† in the society. Therefore, Takaful insurance was introduced to minimize the risk by mutual agreement which doesn’t exploit the interest of any party. C. TAKAFUL INSURANCE:  "Takaful is an Arabic word, which means â€Å"joint guarantee† or â€Å"mutual co-operative agreement†. Tabarru is the basic pillar of Takaful insurance which means charity or gift†, (International Co-operative and Mutual Insurance Federation, 2005). Takaful insurance is based on the principles of Islamic brotherhood that promotes common interest and solidarity. Both parties share the responsibility with a sincere intention to help the other in his/her difficult time by paying the defined loss from the defined sum. D. CHARACTERISTICS OF TAKAFUL INSURANCE: 1. Both parties trust each other and contribute their money into a common pool. 2. The losses are divided so that the element of â€Å"gharar -uncertainty† is reduced and liabilities of each party under the losses are calculated... This paper explaines why the conventional insurance in not permissible in Islam, defines takaful insurance and further explores the problem by determining the key features of takaful insurance and its differences and similarities with the conventional insurance. â€Å"Takaful is an Arabic word, which means â€Å"joint guarantee† or â€Å"mutual co-operative agreement†. Characteristics of takaful insurance are as follows: 1. Both parties trust each other and contribute their money into a common pool. 2. The losses are divided so that the element of â€Å"gharar -uncertainty† is reduced and liabilities of each party under the losses are calculated according to the Islamic pooling system. 3. The policy should not contain terms and conditions aiming towards getting the benefits at the cost of risking other party’s interest. 4. Both parties subscribe to help the other through guaranteed compensation so that uncertainty is removed. 5. The insurance funds are invested in instruments that are interest free. The study concludes that the chances for the growth of the takaful business are very promising. Takaful products are available in many countries which meet the needs of the corporations and individuals. However, the biggest challenge is to overcome the shortage of resources especially, human resources, by providing training and development to employees about Islamic financial models and retaining competent employees who can contribute to the growth of takaful industry.

Read argument assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Read argument assignment - Essay Example d on their respective research claim that this form of writing is not jeopardizing the written language, in fact it is contributing to development of the language. Puente, while summarizing the writing styles used in online social networks’ status updates has described in her essay how writing in this way has become an art. Humphry makes a point by saying that these abbreviations will cause communication problems, but I also agree with Crystal and Lunsford, that if standardized, and included in the dictionary, these abbreviations can become a part of the language and can be taught by linguists. Whenever there is a change, and innovation, there is a reason for it. That reason may be changing preferences of users or busy time schedules. I believe that instead of criticizing this innovation and trying to undo it, it is better to accept it, and to standardize it for easy usage in future. Majority of people around us who own mobile phones today and have access to online social networks like face book and twitter; are used to abbreviated written expressions. According to one estimate, almost 50% of the world’s population owns a cell phone (Crystal). This technology has brought about an immense change in the communication patterns of people (Puente). The frequent use of services like face book status updating; tweets in twitter and short messaging services on cell phones have given rise to a whole new form of written expression, that utilizes more abbreviations and spells different words in ways that are rather unconventional. Some theorists and linguists consider this as a threat to the survival of English language as we know it (Humphrys). Others however argue that evolution of a language is a sign of it being alive. Instead of destroying the language, introduction of new technology is actually progressive for the language and is adding up new terminology to i t, which is more preferred by its users. During the last decade, written expression of English language

Effect of Azadirachtin on Insects

Effect of Azadirachtin on Insects INTRODUCTION Humans have always been in direct competition with a myriad of insects, pests from our ancestral beginning. This competition for food with insects intensified when humans began to cultivate plants converting the natural ecosystem to an agroecosystem. Also insects serve as vectors of various diseases caused by bacterial, filarial nematode, protozoans and viruses. Therefore control of insects posed a major concern for the development of the economy. In 1939, the discovery of insecticidal properties of DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) by Paul H. Mueller changed the scenario of pest management. During World War 2 DDT was extensively used to prevent epidemics of several insect vectored diseases such as yellow fever, typhus elephantiasis and malaria. This drew attention to the possibilities of more synthetic insecticides and as a result the use of pesticides in various arenas soared from 1940-60, complete reliance on pesticides intensive pest management was leading agriculture on a à ¢â‚¬Å"pesticide treadmill†. The overreliance on synthetic pesticides from late 1940s to mid-1960 was referred to as â€Å"Dark Ages† of pest control. The cheapness and effectiveness of synthetic insecticides threw natural compounds into shade. But very soon other shades also began to appear. In 1962, the appearance of book â€Å"Silent Spring† (by Rachel Carison) showed that pesticide residues were building up in ecosystem with detrimental effects on wildlife and beneficial insects. Due to extensive and intensive use, misuse and abuse of insecticides the following problems were becoming prominent and intolerable (ecological backlashes): Development of insecticide resistance- many insects started developing resistance against pesticides which increased the cost of management. Due to killing of natural controlling agents, the phenomenon of pest resurgence became more evident. Also minor pest were achieving the status of major pest i. e. secondary pest outbreak due to significant decline in its natural enemy (predators and parasites). Ecological imbalance due to poisoning of all the realms of environment. Increase in the concentration of hydrochlorinated insecticide in food chain. Intolerable residues on the food made the food obtained after such treatment uneconomical as it became unfit for consumption and unfit for exports due to high toxic residues. Killing and harmful effects on Non target organisms became more prominent (like birds, fishes and other wildlife). Overviewing these effects, there was an utmost need for the development of environmentally sound management practices. This lead to the idea of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) . A panel of experts put the concept of IPM in 1968. IPM as defined by FAO is a system which in consideration with the present environment and pest population dynamics, integrates all the sustainable techniques of pest management as compatible a manner as possible and maintain the population of pest below the level which can cause economic damage (i. e. below economic injury level). The approach is to minimize the dependence on insecticides and maximize the use of ecofriendly methods so as to cause minimum damage to the environment. Botanical pesticides, thus is an very important component of IPM as They are easily degradable. Dont affect non target organisms, natural controlling agents such as predator, parasites. Dont form residues And has no harmful effect on humans as they are very specific in action. Botanical pesticides refer to the use of chemical or organic compound produced by plants, plant products, which have harmful effects on the growth, development and survival of insect pests. Plants are a rich source of such organic compounds. HISTORY The practice of utilizing the derivatives of plant i. e. botanical pesticides in agriculture dates at least two millennia back in ancient China, Egypt, Greece and India. Even in North America and Europe, the documented use of botanicals extend back more than 150 years before the discovery of major class of synthetic chemical insecticides (OP, carbamates and pyretheroids) in mid 1930s to 1950. It is very clear from the recent history that the chemical insecticides have essentially relegated the botanical pesticides from an important role in agriculture to a trivial position in the market among various crop protection strategies. The total number of 20 phylochemicals is estimated to be 500000, so far only 10000 of these have been isolated. At present four major types of botanicals are being used for the control of insects. These include: Pyrethrum Neem (Azadirachtin). Rotenons. Essential oils. Others are in limited use like Ryania, Nicotine, Sabdella. Whereas Nicotine, Rotenene, Natural Pyrethrins constitute the outstanding example of older botanicals, extracts and compounds from the Neem tree (A. indica) have emerged as the most prominent phytochemical pesticides in recent years. Among the various biologically active compounds that can be extracted from the Neem tree like- triterpenoid, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, steroids, ketones; the tetranortriterpenoid azadirachtin has been the most extensively studied pesticide as 1) it is relatively abundant in Neem kernels. 2) has biological activity on a wide range of insects. PLANT SECONDARY METABOLITES Plants produce a large, diverse array of organic compounds that appears to have no function in growth and development. These substances are known as SECONDARY METABOLITES or secondary products or natural products. Secondary metabolites differ from Primary metabolites (amino acids, nucleotides, sugars, acyl lipids) as: They have no direct roles in photosynthesis, respiration, protein synthesis etc They have restricted distribution in plant kingdom. In a seminal paper Fraenkel stressed the role of secondary metabolites as defense system against insects, pests and other natural enemies. Though they play no role in growth and metabolism they play important ecological role in plants: They protect plants against being eaten by herbivore and being infected by microbial pathogen. They serve as attractants for pollinators and seed dispersing animals and as agents of plant-plant competition. Because of their ecological role, plant secondary metabolites are classified as ALLELOCHEMICALS, a term coined by WHITTAKER. An allelochmical is defined as a non nutritional chemical produced by an individual of one species that affects growth, health, behavior, population ecology of another species. Plants produce an astonishing array of Secondary metabolites. Even a single plant species may produce an extensive pharmacopeia of recondite chemicals. Periwinkle for example contains about more than 100 monoterpenoid indole alkaloids. It has been estimated that plant kingdom synthesizes hundreds of thousands of different secondary metabolites. The no of identified compounds now exceeds 10000. Secondary metabolites as plant defense is result of co evolution between plants and herbivores Plant secondary metabolites can be divided into three chemically distinct groups: TERPENES PHENOLICS NITROGEN CONTAINING COMPOUND TERPENES The terpenes constitute the largest class of secondary products . the diverse substances of this class are generally insoluble in water. They are biosynthesized from acetyl coA. Terpenes are classified by no of five carbon units they contain as: Monoterpenes: Contain 2 five carbon skeleton Sesquiterpenes: Contain 3 five carbon skeleton Diterpenes: Contain 4 five carbon skeleton Triterpenes: 30 carbons Tetraterpenes: 40 carbons Polyterpenoids: (C5)n,where n>8 Some terpenes have role in growth and development Terpenes defend against herbivore in many plants. Terpenes are toxins and feeding deterrentsto many plant feeding insects, thus they appear to play important defensive role in plant kingdom and protection of agricultural crops. Examples of important Terpenes: PYRETHROIDS: These are monoterpenoid that occurs in leaves and flowers of Chrysanthemum species show very striking insecticidal activity. Both natural and synthetic pyrethroids are popular ingredients in commercial insecticide because of their low persistence in the environment. Pyrethrum is the predominant botanical in use accounting for 80% of global botanical insecticide. ESSENTIAL OILS: These are the mixture of monoterpene and sesquiterpene that lends a characteristics odor to the foliage . e. g Menttholin Peppermint oil and Limonenein lemon oil are monoterpenes. Essential oils have well known insect repellent properties. They are frequently found in glandular hairs and serve to advertize the toxicity of plant repelling potential. Phytophagus insects even they take a trial bite. VOLATILE TERPENES: In corn wild tobacco certain monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes are produced and emitted only after insect feeding has already begun. These substances prevent oviposition and kill plant feeding insects and so help in controlling further damage. These also attract natural enemies of plant feeding insects so promise a sound means of pest control. LIMNOIDS: These are a group of nonvolatile Triterpene. Among these the most powerful deterrent to insects feeding known is Azadirachtin. It is a complex limnoid from Neem tree which is feeding deterrent to some insects at as low as 50ppm and it exerts a variety of toxic effect. It has considerable potential as a commercial insect control because of its low toxicity to mammals. PHENOLICS Plants produce a variety of secondary products that contain a phenol group, these are called phenolic compounds. Plants phenolics are a chemically heterogeneous group of nearly 10000 compounds . many of these serve as defense compounds against herbivores. The release of phenolics into soil limits the growth of other plants. LIGNIN a highly branched polymer of phenylpropanoid group has significant protective function in plants. Its physical toughness deters feeding by insects and chemical durability makes it relatively indigestible. The flavoids are one of the largest classes of plants phenolics e. g. anthocyanins, flavones etc. Anthocyanins are colored flavonoids that attract insects to flower and fruits by providing visual and olfactory signal. Flavonoids protect against damage by UV light. Tannins deter feeding by herbivores and it also act as feeding repellents to a great diversity of insects NITROGEN CONTAINING COMPOUND A large variety of plant secondary metabolites have nitrogen in their structure. This category includes well known defense against phytophagus insects as alkaloids and cyanogenic glycosides,glucosinolates. ALKALOIDS: These are a large family of more than 15000 nitrogen containing secondary metabolites with a heterocyclic ring. Several different types including nicotine and its relative are derived from ornithine . Most alkaloids now function as defenseagainst their predators because of their toxicity and deterrence capability. Alkaloids increase in response to initial damage fortifying against further damage e. g. wild tobacco produces higher level of nicotinefollowing damage by tobacco caterpillars. CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES: These are not toxic themselves but are readily broken down to give off volatile poisons; well known poisonous gas Hydrogen cyanide. When the leaf is damaged due to insects feeding on it, the cell content of different tissue mix and HCN is formed. HCN is a fast acting toxin that inhibits metalloprotiens such as iron containing cytochrome oxidase; a key enzyme of mitochondrial respiration, thus affecting physiology of insects. Thus presence of cyanogenic glycosides deters feeding by insects. GLUCOSINOLATES: A Class of plant glycosides that break down to release volatile defensive substances, also called Mustard oil glycosides. Found principally in the Brassicaceae and related plant families, where glucosinolates give off compounds responsible for smell and taste of vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, mustards etc. These compounds function in DEFENCE as toxin and feeding repellent. But certain insects are adapted for feeding on glucosinolate containing plants without ill effects. For example glucosinolates serve as stimulant for Cabbage butterfly for feeding and egg laying and isothiocyanates serve as volatile attractants. PLANT PROTIENS: Certain plant protein also interfere with insect digestion, for example plants produce LECTINS,defensive proteins that bind to epithelial cell lining digestive tract and interfere with nutrient absorption. The best known anti digestive proteins in plants are protein inhibitors found in legumes, tomatoes, and other plants. After entering herbivores digestive tract they interfere with protein digestion, as a result insects suffer reduced rates of growth and development. THE NEEM TREE, PROPERTIES AND DISTRIBUTION The Neem tree also known by names like Indian Lilac, Margosa tree is an evergreen fastgrowing tree belonging to the order â€Å"Rutales† and family â€Å"Meliaceae†. The genus Azadirachta indica was described by A. juss in 1830. DISRIBUTION Neem tree is indigenous to Indian Subcontinent from where is has spread to many Asian and African countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Mynamar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Iran, Yemen, Australia, New Guinea, Nigeria, Fizi, Tanzania, Madagascar, USA, Latin America, Germany, France, Portugal, Spain and UK. It is now grown in most tropical and sub-tropical parts of the worls. The origin of A. indica is not very clear. Some say that is has originated from Burma whereas others point it to south India. It is considered that it has originated from south-eastern and southern Asia. In Indonesia Neem exists in low lying Northern and Eastern parts of java. In Philippines it was introduced from India, Africa. Ketkar (1967) reported about 14 million trees in India. There are more than 20 million trees available in entire India. In Africa Neem was introduced from India and is concentrated in a belt stretching across the African continent from Somalia to Mauretania. In America Neem trees are prominent in Haiti, Surinam and propagation has started in Brazil, Puerto Rico, Cuba and Nicaragua. Neem trees also grow in our neighbouring countries, Middle East, Saudi Arabia and Yemen. HABITAT Neem tree is a fast growing sclerophyllous tree. It grows well in humid to semi-humid climate. It thrives well at altitudes upto 700-800m above the sea level. Neem trees are hardy and are able to grow in severe drought condition also. They thrive well in regions with less than 500 mm annual rainfall and upto 2500 mm annual rainfall. Neem tree exist in poor, shallow, sandy and stony soil. It also grows in black cotton soil in India. Neem tree can flourish in warm to very hot climates. It grows well between 21-320c temperatures but it can tolerate upto 500c during summer. Ph value between 6. 2-7 seems to the best for the growth of Neem tree. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES It is a fast-growing tree, reaching a height of 4-7 m during the first 3 years and 5-11m during the following 5 years. It begins to bear fruit within 3-5 years and becomes fully productive in the 10th year, when it may yield up to 50 kg fruit per tree per year. The Neem tree produces its fruits, which are the main source for its production of pesticides, on drooping panicles, usually about once a year, although two fruiting periods per year occur in certain areas (e. g. West Africa). A mature Neem tree produces annually 30-50 kg of fruit, but this may depend upon rainfall and soil conditions. More conservative estimates range around 20 kg per tree; 40 kg of fresh fruit yield about 24 kg of dry fruit. Neem has the reputation of possessing a large number of biological activities which include insecticidal, nematicidal, bactericidal, and anti-fungal. It has attracted world-wide attention due to its wide ranging capacity as a biocide. PESTICIDAL CONSTITUENT OF NEEM Neem tree is the only tree in which every part of tree produces biologically active products which has various properties such as antifeedant, deterrent, growth regulation, oviposition alteration, insecticidal properties, fungicidal properties,etc. Though bark, heartwood, leaves, fruits of it produce these substances in various concentrations but it is the fruits specifically seeds which are of major importance. Neem seed kernels contain the highest amount of the active compound. 40-50 kg of fruit can yield about 5 kg of kernels (10% of fruit). Each seed contains about 1-3 kernels. Till date more than 140 active principles have been identified in different parts of the tree. Insecticidal properties of Neem is due to the presence of a class of Limnoids which include compounds like Azadirachtin, Melantriol, Salanin, Mimbines, Salannol and various sulfur containing compounds. Among these Azadirachtin is the most active and predominant insecticidal compound concentrated mainly in the seed kernels. The Azadirachtin occurs in seeds at the concentration of about 0. 1-0. 9%. It is estimated that 20-30 kg of Neem seeds are required per hectare if 2g of Azadirachtin per kg of sed is obtained. The highest yield of Azadirachtin obtained till date was about 10g/kg of seed. AZADIRACHTINAND ITS STRUCTURE Azadirachtin is a highly oxidized limnoid chemically being a tetranortriterpenoid and is the main component responsible for both anti-feedant and toxic effects in Azadirachtin. Butterworth and Morgan were the first to isolate Azadirachtin in 1968 from Neem seed. Morgan established correct molecular formula of Azadirachitn (C55H44O16). In 1971 they developed a simplified method to isolate azadirachitn by doing solvent partitioning followed by column and preparative thin layer chromatography. However its structure was determined in 1975 by Nakanishis team through the application of new NMR methods. There were some inaccuracies in the given model. Then again renewed efforts were made by the group of Ley, Kraus, Nakanishi and they gave the correct structure by using X-ray crystallography. A. indica produces a plethora of triterpenoids, the biosynthesis of which culminates in azadirachtin. The biosynthesis of azadirachtin starts with a steroid precursor tetracyclic triterpene â€Å"tirucallol†. Opening of C-ring followed by processing via two main levels of structural complexity i. e. furan ring formation leads to Azadirachtin. VARIOUS PESTICIDAL FORMULATIONS Neem insecticides which are obtained from Neem seeds contain various arelated triterpenoids in addition to the Azadirachtin. However their efficacy is related directly to the content of Azadirachtin. These compounds do possess biological activity and they add to its effects. Pure Azadirachtin was shown to be effective in the fields (Mordue et al, 1997) but the natural mixtures of azadirachtin in Neem insecticides may usefully mitigate against the development of resistance compared to azadirachtin alone (Feng and Isman, 1995). The complex nature of azadirachtin and other sophisticated Neem constituents prevent their mass production by synthesis in the foreseeable future. The pesticidal Neem products used in practice include dried leaves, whole seed, decorticated seed, seed kernels, Neem oil, and Neem cake, remaining after extraction or extrusion of the oil from the seeds. Several Indian companies or institutions produce commercially Neem-based insecticidal formulations, such as RD-9 Repelin and Wellgro, for spraying against cutworms and other insect pests in tobacco growing areas; Nimbosol and Biosol for control of whiteflies; and the products Neemrich and Neemark, the latter also as an azadirachtin-enriched granular Neem formulation. In the U. S. A. , the EPA hasgranted registration to Margosan-O, an azadirachtin-enriched, concentrated Neem seed kernel extract formulation, for use on non food crops and ornamentals. Margosan-0 was developed by R. Larson of Vikwood Botanicals Inc. at Sheboygan, WI, in colla boration with the USDA Agricultural Research Center at Beltsville, MD. The rights to this product, which contains 0. 3% azadirachtin and 14%Neem oil (the 0 in the name of the product stands for oil), and has an oral toxicity in excess of 5,000 mg/kg in rats. Margosan-0 has been evaluated successfully against an extensive series of insects in the U. S. A. and Canada, Lyriornizu leafminers on ornamentals and tomatoes, cotton bugs, cockroaches and mosquitoes. Margosan-0 demonstrated highest activity against Ostriniu nubilalis , and against leafhoppers, against two species of local cotton pests, Enrias insulana and Spodoptera littoralis. Recently in the U. S. A. a further Neem formulation, developed. under the auspices of the Natural Products Institute, Salt Lake City, UT is †Azatin†(Agridyne Technologies, Salt Lake City, UT). Also, Safer Ltd. , a Canadian manufacturer specializing in environmentally safe pest control formulations, developed insecticides based on Neem. Safer , however, has been acquired recently by Ringer Corp. , Minneapolis, MN, which distributes Margosan-0 in the home garden market under the tradenames of â€Å"Bioneem† and â€Å"Neemesis†. Contrary to registration practices in use until now, no precise chemical descriptions of all the ingredients of Margosan-0 were required, but rather, demonstration of the biological activity and innocuousness of the whole mixture to no target organisms was used in the registration process. Hopefully such specially tailored toxicity studies will be used to judge and register Neem and similar natural products in the future. A recent report claims that the EPA has approved a Neem-based biological pesticide developed by an Indian company for use on a wide range of food crops. MODES OF ACTION Major modes of action of azadirachtin are: Powerful IGR. Feeding Deterrant. Oviposition Deterrant. These are the three modes of action of azadirachtin which make azadirachtin much sought after biopesticide in todays agriculture industry. IGR: Azadirachtin acts as a powerful growth regulator for insects and this IGR effect is the most pronounced mode of action of Azadirachtin. Normally IGR effect the hormonal system of insects, preventing the insects from developing into normal mature insects. This IGR property of Azadirachtin doesnot leads to immediate death of insects, pests. Azadirachtin as an IGR: The IGR property of Azadirachtin arise due to the fact that: Azadirachtin is structurally analogous to natural hormone Ecdysone. As Ecdysone regulates the development of insect, any disruption in its balance leads to improper development. Also Azadirachtin interferes with the production and reception of Ecdysone at the time of insects growth and moulting. Thus Azadirachtin in this manner block the moulting cycle resulting in the death of the insect, pest. The main action of Azadirachtin appears to be at the release site of PTTH. The mode of action of Azadirachtin as IGR is thus an Indirect Physiological Effect. It is exerted via the endocrine system. The copora cardiaca is supposed to be the target for the Azadirachtin as is affects the PTTH, Eclosin Hormone, Bursicin Hormone release. PTTH release is inhibited rather than Ecdysine from Prothorasic gland. Thus the Azadirachtin affects the neurosecretory cells of Brain. Various experiments show that Azadirachtin doesnt directly act on Prothorasic Glands. In the in vitro culture of Prothorasic (H. virescens) gland showed that the PTTH induced release of the Ecdysine was medium (Bidmon et al, 1987, Barnby and Klocke, 1990). Also it was not blocked in PTTH simulated cultured glands from M. sexta pupa penetrated with Azadirachtin in last larval instar (Pener et al, 1988). However receptivity of Prothorasic gland to PTTH was affected in H. virescens. Neurosecretory proteins stained with paraldehyde in L. migratolia females when was compared with similar aged azadirachtin treated females there was an accumaulation of stainable material in corpora cardiaca of brain neurosecretory system in treated insects. Thus is appears that azadirachtin blocks release of neurosecretory material from corpora cardiac. It can thus be concluded that Azadirachtin does block the release of peptide hormones from brain neurosecretory cell corpora cardiac complex. Azadirachtin also exhibit IGR effect by altering the titre of Juvenile Hormone (JH). Azadirachtin affects the release of allotropins into corpora dillata hence block the synthesis and release of the Juvenile Hormone. This block leads to a rapid decrease in whole body JH titres, which is maintained for several days. Experiments prove that in M. sexta larvae, azadirachtin infection on day 0 (1. 0-10  µg/ larva) results in induction of supernumerary moults (Sch et al, 1985; Beckage et al, 1988) presumably due to an inhibition and subsequent delay in JH titre. In adult female L. migratolia also azadirachtin treatment causes a rapid decrease in juvenile hormone titres with associated disturbances in oogenesis (Rembold, 1984; Rembold et al, 1987). Thus, on a conclusionary note, the effect of azadirachtin is both dose and time dependent. It prevents both apolysis and ecdysis and thus can cause death before the moults, during the moults or delays of moult to form permanent larvae. Feeding Deterrance: Feeding behavior is both dependent on chemical senses stimulated due to contact chemoreceptors on trasi, mouthparts and oral activity and integration of the sensory code with the CNS. Azadirachtin acts as feeding deterrant. Inhibition of the feeding behavior occurs: There are receptors present on and around mouthparts of insects which normally respond to Phagostimulants. So azadirachtin may act by blocking the input from these receptors. Also there are present specific â€Å"deterrent cells† in insects which prevent insect from feeding. Azadirachtin acts to stimulate these â€Å"deterrent cells† leading to feeding deterrence. Many experiments were done in this regard. Using different concentration of sucrose and azadirachtin, either singly or together, the neurophysiological responses from  ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­medial and lateral sensillia styloconica of maxillae showed different group of receptors are receptive to sucrose (sugar cells) or azadirachtin (deterrent cell) in S. exempta and M. brassicae in most of the cases, the rate of firing of sugar sensitive cells were reduced in presence of both chemicals (Simmonds and Blaney, 1984). Such an interaction was also found in P. brassicae. This leads to a reduced or complete inhibition of feeding. Direct mode of action: Incorporation of azadirachtin results in direct toxic effect after ingestion. Azadirachtin prevents the secretion of Proteolytic enzymes and thus significantly impair ability of insects to digest and absorb nitrogenous food. When azadirachtin is ingested it can result in the disfunctioning of gut, as a result of which midgut epithelial cells become round. Swelling of cells and organells occur with some vacuolization and cell burst resulting in necrosis (as observed in S. gregarea and L. migratolia Naseruddin and Mordue (Luntz), 1993a; Cottee, 1984). There is also reduction in the regenerative cells and increase in the connective tissue layer with some invading heomocytes. This would lead to disruption of enzyme secretion and nutrient absorption. Also the antifeedant effect can be attributed to the action of azadirachtin on the peristaltic movement of gut wall. The gut of treated insects lack tone, midgut to hindgut junction becomes flaccid and co-ordinated peristalsis is lacking which leads to antifeeding behavior. EFFECT OF AZADIRACHTIN ON INSECTS Effects on Feeding Azadirachtin is a classical example of a natural plant defence chemical affecting feeding. Antifeedancy is the major insecticidal effect of Azadirachtin. Antifeedant effect in insect pest on application of Azadirachtin is divided into two main categories: Primary Antifeedancy: It refers to the deterrence of feeding in insects. Primary Antifeedancy is also called Gustatory antifeedancy. It can be defined as the inability to ingest resulting from the perception of antifeedant at a sensory level (Schmutterer 1985). Insects fail to eat treated crops and as starvation ensued results in the death of insects. Secondary Antifeedant effect: It refers to the non-feeding after the ingestion of treated plant. Secondary antifeedancy is also called Non-Gustatory antifeedancy. It can be defined as the reduction in food consumption and digestive efficiency subsequent to and as a consequence of ingestion, application or injection of antifeedant (Schmutterer, 1985). Experiments conducted in the past in this regard by various persons: The first detailed experiment was conducted in S. gregaria (desert locusts) in India. Insects from different orders show marked difference in their response to azadirachtin. (Table 1) Lepidopteras showed extreme sensitivity to azadirachtin and depending upon species, effective anti-feedance was observed from less than 1 to 50 ppm. Hemiptera (Homoptera), Coleoptera are less sensitive to azadirachtin with 100 % antifeedancy observed at 100-600 ppm. However, in Orthoptera wide range of sensitivity has been observed. Reed and Pierce in 1981 tested the repellant effect of Neem extract to striped cucumber beetle (A. vittateim), by cutting leaves and dipping them in extract solution and placing them in a dish with untreated leaf pieces. When 5 fasting beetles were placed in a dish, 0. 1 % azadirachtin gave protection for atleast three days. The intake of food by various homopteran insects Nilaparvata lugens, Nephotettix virescens was significantly reduced on rice plants sprayed with 1-50% emulsion of Neem oil. ( ). In green rice leafhopper, N. virescens feeding on the phloem of neem oil treated plants (1. 25-10%) was significantly less than of solvent treated control plants, whereas xylem feeding increased. Hemipteran insects feeding on tobacco seedlings which had been systemically treated with 500 ppm azadirachtin, were shown initially to feed normally but, after termination of the initial feed, the interval prior to the next subsequent feed was significantly increased and feeding activity thereafter was suppressed (Nisbetet al. 1993). When azadirachtun was impregnated on discs at a concentration of 0. 1-10 ppm, S. littoralis(African cotton leafworm),Spodoptera frugiperda(J. E. Smith) (fall armyworm),Heliothis virescens(F. ) (Tobacco budworm) andHelicoverpa armigera(Hà ¼b. ) (Old world bollworm) showed significant beh avior response and are prevented from feeding on the discs dependent on species (Blaney et al. 1990, Simmonds et al. 1990, Mordue (Luntz) et al. 1998) Insects from different Orders differ markedly in their behavior responses to azadirachtin (Table 1). Lepidoptera are extremely sensitive to azadirachtin and show effective antifeedancies from